Psalm 78 Story Behind
Psalm 78
About the Story Behind Layer
The Story Behind the Psalm shows how each part of the psalm fits together into a single coherent whole. Whereas most semantic analysis focuses on discrete parts of a text such as the meaning of a word or phrase, Story Behind the Psalm considers the meaning of larger units of discourse, including the entire psalm.
The goal of this layer is to reconstruct and visualize a mental representation of the text as the earliest hearers/readers might have conceptualized it. We start by identifying the propositional content of each clause in the psalm, and then we identify relevant assumptions implied by each of the propositions. During this process, we also identify and analyze metaphorical language (“imagery”). Finally, we try to see how all of the propositions and assumptions fit together to form a coherent mental representation. The main tool we use for structuring the propositions and assumptions is a story triangle, which visualizes the rise and fall of tension within a semantic unit. Although story triangles are traditionally used to analyze stories in the literary sense of the word, we use them at this layer to analyze “stories” in the cognitive sense of the word—i.e., a story as a sequence of propositions and assumptions that has tension.
Summary Triangle
The story triangle below summarises the story of the whole psalm. We use the same colour scheme as in Participant Analysis. The star icon along the edge of the story-triangle indicates the point of the story in which the psalm itself (as a speech event) takes place. We also include a theme at the bottom of the story. The theme is the main message conveyed by the story-behind.
| Story Triangles legend | |
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| Propositional content (verse number) | Propositional content, the base meaning of the clause, is indicated by bold black text. The verse number immediately follows the correlating proposition in black text inside parentheses. |
| Common-ground assumption | Common-ground assumptions[1] are indicated by gray text. |
| Local-ground assumption | Local-ground assumptions[2] are indicated by dark blue text. |
| Playground assumption | Playground assumptions[3] are indicated by light blue text. |
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The point of the story at which the psalm takes place (as a speech event) is indicated by a gray star. |
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If applicable, the point of the story at which the psalm BEGINS to take place (as a speech event) is indicated with a light gray star. A gray arrow will travel from this star to the point at which the psalm ends, indicated by the darker gray star. |
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A story that repeats is indicated by a circular arrow. This indicates a sequence of either habitual or iterative events. |
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A story or event that does not happen or the psalmist does not wish to happen is indicated with a red X over the story triangle. |
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Connections between propositions and/or assumptions are indicated by black arrows with small text indicating how the ideas are connected. |
| Note: In the Summary triangle, highlight color scheme follows the colors of participant analysis. | |
Background ideas
Following are the common-ground assumptionsCommon-ground assumptions include information shared by the speaker and hearers. In our analysis, we mainly use this category for Biblical/Ancient Near Eastern background. which are the most helpful for making sense of the psalm.
Background situation
The background situation is the series of events leading up to the time in which the psalm is spoken. These are taken from the story triangle – whatever lies to the left of the star icon.
Expanded Paraphrase
The expanded paraphrase seeks to capture the implicit information within the text and make it explicit for readers today. It is based on the CBC translation and uses italic text to provide the most salient background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences.
| Expanded paraphrase legend | |
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| Close but Clear (CBC) translation | The CBC, our close but clear translation of the Hebrew, is represented in bold text. |
| Assumptions | Assumptions which provide background information, presuppositions, entailments, and inferences are represented in italics. |
| Text (Hebrew) | Verse | Expanded Paraphrase |
|---|---|---|
| מַשְׂכִּיל לְאָסָף הַאֲזִינָה עַמִּי תּוֹרָתִי הַטּוּ אָזְנְכֶם לְאִמְרֵי־פִי׃ | 1 | A maskil. By Asaph the Levitical singer and head of the family of Levitical musicians, whom David appointed to minister before the Ark of the Covenant in the tent he had established for worship in Zion (1 Chr 16). Listen, my people, to my teaching, as if it was coming from YHWH himself; turn your ear to the words of my mouth. |
| אֶפְתְּחָה בְמָשָׁל פִּי אַבִּיעָה חִידוֹת מִנִּי־קֶדֶם׃ | 2 | Let me open up my mouth with a parable about how God chose David as our king, which requires wisdom to understand. Listen carefully, because you will need to pay attention until the end to understand it. Let me pour out puzzling problems of the seeming endless cycle of God's patience and covenant faithfulness towards our ancestors, even though they, in their continual unfaithfulness and rebellion, did not deserve it. They are problems from long ago, which our ancestors did not figure out for generations but were commanded to pass on to us. |
| אֲשֶׁר שָׁמַעְנוּ וַנֵּדָעֵם וַאֲבוֹתֵינוּ סִפְּרוּ־לָנוּ׃ | 3 | The things which we heard, and which we learned and our ancestors told us —you and I both know them, |
| לֹא נְכַחֵד מִבְּנֵיהֶם לְדוֹר אַחֲרוֹן מְסַפְּרִים תְּהִלּוֹת יְהוָה וֶעֱזוּזוֹ וְנִפְלְאוֹתָיו אֲשֶׁר עָשָׂה׃ | 4 | we will not hide from their children in the latest generation, that is, the present generation, proclaiming the praiseworthy deeds of YHWH and his power and his wonderful deeds which he has accomplished: |
| וַיָּקֶם עֵדוּת בְּיַעֲקֹב וְתוֹרָה שָׂם בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל אֲשֶׁר צִוָּה אֶת־אֲבוֹתֵינוּ לְהוֹדִיעָם לִבְנֵיהֶם׃ | 5 | Let me offer some background on how he established a testimony among Jacob and set up a teaching among Israel, which he commanded our ancestors to teach them to their children, |
| לְמַעַן יֵדְעוּ דּוֹר אַחֲרוֹן בָּנִים יִוָּלֵדוּ יָקֻמוּ וִיסַפְּרוּ לִבְנֵיהֶם׃ | 6 | so that the latest —that is, the present— generation might know —children who were yet to be born — [that] they might begin to tell their children |
| וְיָשִׂימוּ בֵֽאלֹהִים כִּסְלָם וְלֹא יִשְׁכְּחוּ מַֽעַלְלֵי־אֵל וּמִצְוֺתָיו יִנְצֹֽרוּ׃ | 7 | and they might put their trust in God, [so that] they might not forget God's deeds but might obey his commands |
| וְלֹא יִהְיוּ כַּאֲבוֹתָם דּוֹר סוֹרֵר וּמֹרֶה דּוֹר לֹא־הֵכִין לִבּוֹ וְלֹא־נֶאֶמְנָה אֶת־אֵל רוּחֽוֹ׃ | 8 | and might not be like their ancestors, a stubborn and rebellious generation, a generation who did not keep their heart committed and whose mind was not faithful to God, in that their will and intentions were not aligned to YHWH's will and intentions. |
| בְּנֵי־אֶפְרַיִם נוֹשְׁקֵי רוֹמֵי־קָשֶׁת הָפְכוּ בְּיוֹם קְרָב׃ | 9 | The same ancestors who were unfaithful were charged with passing on these historical lessons. It all came to a head when Ephraimites, armed [with a bow], archers with a reputation for fierceness in war, actually turned back on a day of battle. But how did they get to that point? |
| לֹא שָׁמְרוּ בְּרִית אֱלֹהִים וּבְתוֹרָתוֹ מֵאֲנוּ לָלֶכֶת׃ | 10 | Their defeat was not on account of a superior opponent, but because they did not keep the covenant of God and covenantal unfaithfulness results in military defeat. They refused to walk in and live by his teaching, which expresses YHWH's covenant expectations and stipulations, |
| וַיִּשְׁכְּחוּ עֲלִילוֹתָיו וְנִפְלְאוֹתָיו אֲשֶׁר הֶרְאָם׃ | 11 | in that they forgot his deeds and [they forgot] his wonders which he had shown them for centuries. |
| נֶגֶד אֲבוֹתָם עָשָׂה פֶלֶא בְּאֶרֶץ מִצְרַיִם שְׂדֵה־צֹֽעַן׃ | 12 | In front of their ancestors and ours he performed miracles in the land of Egypt, the region of Zoan where they were building store cities as slaves. |
| בָּקַע יָם וַיַּעֲבִירֵם וַיַּצֶּב־מַיִם כְּמוֹ־נֵד׃ | 13 | And after all his miracles in Egypt, he divided the sea and brought them through; he made the waters stand like a heap, making their crossing secure and without risk. |
| וַיַּנְחֵם בֶּעָנָן יוֹמָם וְכָל־הַלַּיְלָה בְּאוֹר אֵֽשׁ׃ | 14 | He led them by cloud during the day and [he led them ] all night by fire light. |
| יְבַקַּע צֻרִים בַּמִּדְבָּר וַיַּשְׁקְ כִּתְהֹמוֹת רַבָּֽה׃ | 15 | He would split rocks in the wilderness of all places and provide drinking water abundantly, as from oceans. |
| וַיּוֹצִא נוֹזְלִים מִסָּלַע וַיּוֹרֶד כַּנְּהָרוֹת מָֽיִם׃ | 16 | He would bring streams out from rock and make water flow down like rivers. |
| וַיּוֹסִיפוּ עוֹד לַחֲטֹא־לוֹ לַמְרוֹת עֶלְיוֹן בַּצִּיָּה׃ | 17 | But again, even in those times, just as the Ephraimites would continue to do, they sinned against him; again they rebelled against the Most High in the desert. |
| וַיְנַסּוּ־אֵל בִּלְבָבָם לִשְׁאָל־אֹכֶל לְנַפְשָׁם׃ | 18 | They put God to the test in their heart, by asking for food for their throat. |
| וַיְדַבְּרוּ בֵּֽאלֹהִים אָמְרוּ הֲיוּכַל אֵל לַעֲרֹךְ שֻׁלְחָן בַּמִּדְבָּר׃ | 19 | They spoke against God, saying: "Is God not able to prepare a table in the wilderness, a substantial meal with us as his guests? |
| הֵן הִכָּה־צוּר וַיָּזוּבוּ מַיִם וּנְחָלִים יִשְׁטֹפוּ הֲגַם־לֶחֶם יוּכַל תֵּת אִם־יָכִין שְׁאֵר לְעַמּוֹ׃ | 20 | Since he struck a rock so that waters gushed out and streams began to flow, is he not able to give bread, too? Or can he not provide meat for his people? He's the God who brought us out of Egypt; surely if we open our mouth, he will fill it? (Ps 81:11)." |
| לָכֵן שָׁמַע יְהוָה וַיִּתְעַבָּר וְאֵשׁ נִשְּׂקָה בְיַעֲקֹב וְגַם־אַף עָלָה בְיִשְׂרָאֵל׃ | 21 | Therefore, when YHWH heard he became furious that they would doubt him; fire flared up against Jacob and also anger rose against Israel, |
| כִּי לֹא הֶאֱמִינוּ בֵּאלֹהִים וְלֹא בָטְחוּ בִּישׁוּעָתוֹ׃ | 22 | because they had not believed in God and they had not trusted in his provision. |
| וַיְצַו שְׁחָקִים מִמָּעַל וְדַלְתֵי שָׁמַיִם פָּתָח׃ | 23 | So, even when he brought them what they asked for, they still did not trust him and in their lack of faith they brought his anger upon them once again again. This was when he ordered clouds from above and opened heavenly doors; |
| וַיַּמְטֵר עֲלֵיהֶם מָן לֶאֱכֹל וּדְגַן־שָׁמַיִם נָתַן לָמוֹ׃ | 24 | he rained down upon them manna to eat and he gave them grain from heaven. |
| לֶחֶם אַבִּירִים אָכַל אִישׁ צֵידָה שָׁלַח לָהֶם לָשֹׂבַע׃ | 25 | People ate bread of angels, meaning it was sent directly from heaven; he sent them provisions until they were satisfied and did not need any more. |
| יַסַּע קָדִים בַּשָּׁמָיִם וַיְנַהֵג בְּעֻזּוֹ תֵימָן׃ | 26 | He caused an east wind to blow in the sky and he drove a south wind with his might. |
| וַיַּמְטֵר עֲלֵיהֶם כֶּעָפָר שְׁאֵר וּכְחוֹל יַמִּים עוֹף כָּנָף׃ | 27 | So he made meat rain upon them, immeasurable like dust and [he made] winged birds [rain upon them] like the sand on the seashore, |
| וַיַּפֵּל בְּקֶרֶב מַחֲנֵהוּ סָבִיב לְמִשְׁכְּנֹתָיו׃ | 28 | and he made them fall inside his camp, all around his tents, so they did not even have to work for it or go anywhere to attain it. |
| וַיֹּאכְלוּ וַיִּשְׂבְּעוּ מְאֹד וְתַֽאֲוָתָם יָבִא לָהֶֽם׃ | 29 | So they ate and were completely satisfied when he brought them what they craved. This was all they needed, but they did not trust him to provide another meal, so they kept on eating and gorged themselves even beyond satisfaction. |
| לֹא־זָרוּ מִתַּאֲוָתָם עוֹד אָכְלָם בְּפִיהֶֽם׃ | 30 | They had not turned away from trying to satisfy themselves with the object of their craving rather than being satisfied in their trust in YHWH, who provided for their needs —their food was still in their mouth, even though they were more than full — |
| וְאַף אֱלֹהִים עָלָה בָהֶם וַיַּהֲרֹג בְּמִשְׁמַנֵּיהֶם וּבַחוּרֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל הִכְרִיעַ׃ | 31 | when the anger of God rose against them and he killed some of their strong men, whose obsession with food, even when God granted it, still could not save them when they abandoned God, and he struck down young men of Israel. So that place became called "Graves of Craving" (Num 11:34). |
| בְּכָל־זֹאת חָטְאוּ־עוֹד וְלֹֽא־הֶאֱמִינוּ בְּנִפְלְאוֹתָיו׃ | 32 | In spite of this, they sinned again by treating YHWH with contempt and refusing to believe in him (Num 14:11) when the spies returned from the land with a negative report (Num 13) and did not trust in his wonderful deeds that he had already performed among them. |
| וַיְכַל־בַּהֶבֶל יְמֵיהֶם וּשְׁנוֹתָם בַּבֶּהָלָה׃ | 33 | So he made them spend their days in vain and [he made them spend] their years in anguish, wandering around the desert for a generation—one year for every day they spied out the land (Num 14:34). |
| אִם־הֲרָגָם וּדְרָשׁוּהוּ וְשָׁבוּ וְשִׁחֲרוּ־אֵל׃ | 34 | Throughout this time, when he was providing for their every need — their sandals didn't even wear out! — they would still sin. Judgment was sometimes death, and, whenever he killed them, then they would seek him and again look for God. |
| וַיִּזְכְּרוּ כִּי־אֱלֹהִים צוּרָם וְאֵל עֶלְיוֹן גֹּאֲלָם׃ | 35 | They would remember that God was their rock, providing for the needs of his people, no matter their circumstances, and [that] God, the Most High, was their redeemer, who had brought them out of Egypt. |
| וַיְפַתּוּהוּ בְּפִיהֶם וּבִלְשׁוֹנָם יְכַזְּבוּ־לוֹ׃ | 36 | But their repentance was not sincere, since they were only trying to deceive him with their mouth and with their tongue were lying to him. |
| וְלִבָּם לֹא־נָכוֹן עִמּוֹ וְלֹא נֶאֶמְנוּ בִּבְרִיתוֹ׃ | 37 | Their heart was not committed to him and they were not faithful to his covenant that he had established with them in the wilderness. |
| וְהוּא רַחוּם יְכַפֵּר עָוֺן וְלֹא־יַשְׁחִית וְהִרְבָּה לְהָשִׁיב אַפּוֹ וְלֹֽא־יָעִיר כָּל־חֲמָתוֹ׃ | 38 | But he is compassionate. He forgives iniquity and does not destroy. Back then he repeatedly turned back his anger. And he would not stir up all his wrath. |
| וַיִּזְכֹּר כִּי־בָשָׂר הֵמָּה רוּחַ הוֹלֵךְ וְלֹא יָשׁוּב׃ | 39 | He remembered that they were mortal flesh, just as ephemeral as a breeze that goes by and will not return. |
| כַּמָּה יַמְרוּהוּ בַמִּדְבָּר יַעֲצִיבוּהוּ בִּֽישִׁימוֹן׃ | 40 | Nevertheless, how often did they rebel against him in the wilderness! [How often] did they grieve him in the desert! |
| וַיָּשׁוּבוּ וַיְנַסּוּ אֵל וּקְדוֹשׁ יִשְׂרָאֵל הִתְווּ׃ | 41 | Again they put God to the test and they provoked the Holy One of Israel |
| לֹא־זָכְרוּ אֶת־יָדוֹ יוֹם אֲֽשֶׁר־פָּדָם מִנִּי־צָר׃ | 42 | when they not only forgot his miraculous deeds in the wilderness, but also did not remember his strength as their redeemer; [they did not remember] the day in which he saved them from an adversary. |
| אֲשֶׁר־שָׂם בְּמִצְרַיִם אֹתוֹתָיו וּמוֹפְתָיו בִּשְׂדֵה־צֹעַן׃ | 43 | [They did not remember the day] in which he displayed his signs in Egypt and [displayed] his miracles in the region of Zoan showing that he had the power and willingness to faithfully lead his covenant people, but also showing he had the power and willingness to completely destroy their enemies, which could have ultimately been their end, too — |
| וַיַּהֲפֹךְ לְדָם יְאֹרֵיהֶם וְנֹזְלֵיהֶם בַּל־יִשְׁתָּיוּן׃ | 44 | how he turned their rivers into blood and they could not drink [from] their streams even though naturally they should have had water in abundance. |
| יְשַׁלַּח בָּהֶם עָרֹב וַיֹּאכְלֵם וּצְפַרְדֵּעַ וַתַּשְׁחִיתֵם׃ | 45 | He sent a swarm of insects among them and it devoured them; [he sent] a plague of frogs [among them] and it destroyed them. |
| וַיִּתֵּן לֶחָסִיל יְבוּלָם וִיגִיעָם לָאַרְבֶּה׃ | 46 | He gave their crops to young locusts and [he gave ] the fruit of their labor to locusts. |
| יַהֲרֹג בַּבָּרָד גַּפְנָם וְשִׁקְמוֹתָם בַּֽחֲנָמַל׃ | 47 | He killed their vines with hail and [he killed ] their sycamore trees with frost. |
| וַיַּסְגֵּר לַבָּרָד בְּעִירָם וּמִקְנֵיהֶם לָרְשָׁפִים׃ | 48 | He gave their livestock over to hail and [he gave] their herds [over] to lightning, so they had nothing left to eat, even though naturally they should have had food in abundance. |
| יְשַׁלַּח־בָּם חֲרוֹן אַפּוֹ עֶבְרָה וָזַעַם וְצָרָה מִשְׁלַחַת מַלְאֲכֵי רָעִים׃ | 49 | He sent among them the wrath of his anger: fury and indignation and trouble, by a deputation of angels bringing disaster, the Passover destroyer (Exod 12:23), as if it were YHWH himself (Exod 11:4; 12:12, 23). |
| יְפַלֵּס נָתִיב לְאַפּוֹ לֹא־חָשַׂךְ מִמָּוֶת נַפְשָׁם וְחַיָּתָם לַדֶּבֶר הִסְגִּיר׃ | 50 | He cleared a path for his anger and went for them, instead of turning back his anger as he would do with our ancestors; he did not spare their soul from death but gave their life over to plague. |
| וַיַּךְ כָּל־בְּכוֹר בְּמִצְרָיִם רֵאשִׁית אוֹנִים בְּאָהֳלֵי־חָם׃ | 51 | He killed every firstborn in Egypt, the firstfruits of strength among the tents of Ham, |
| וַיַּסַּע כַּצֹּאן עַמּוֹ וַיְנַהֲגֵם כַּעֵדֶר בַּמִּדְבָּר׃ | 52 | but they also did not remember how he had dealt with their enemies like this in order to redeem a people for himself, such that after completely destroying the Egyptians he led out his people from Egypt like a flock and guided them in the wilderness like a herd —already incredibly numerous but at risk of being scattered. |
| וַיַּנְחֵם לָבֶטַח וְלֹא פָחָדוּ וְאֶת־אוֹיְבֵיהֶם כִּסָּה הַיָּם׃ | 53 | He led them securely out of their slavemasters' land and they were not afraid, but the sea covered their enemies when YHWH stirred up all his wrath and YHWH destroyed them. |
| וַיְבִיאֵם אֶל־גְּבוּל קָדְשׁוֹ הַר־ זֶה קָנְתָה יְמִינוֹ׃ | 54 | This is something he was unwilling to do to our ancestors. Rather, he brought them all the way through the wilderness, as we discussed above, to his holy territory, the hill-country which his right hand had acquired and prepared for his people. |
| וַיְגָרֶשׁ מִפְּנֵיהֶם גּוֹיִם וַיַּפִּילֵם בְּחֶבֶל נַחֲלָה וַיַּשְׁכֵּן בְּאָהֳלֵיהֶם שִׁבְטֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל׃ | 55 | He drove out nations from their presence, nations who were much bigger and stronger than they were (Deut 7:1), and allotted them as an inheritance by measurement; he let the clans of Israel live in their dwelling places. |
| וַיְנַסּוּ וַיַּמְרוּ אֶת־אֱלֹהִים עֶלְיוֹן וְעֵדוֹתָיו לֹא שָׁמָרוּ׃ | 56 | But even then, again they rebelliously put God, the Most High, to the test, and they did not observe his testimonies, paying attention to everything they heard YHWH had accomplished, |
| וַיִּסֹּגוּ וַיִּבְגְּדוּ כַּאֲבוֹתָם נֶהְפְּכוּ כְּקֶשֶׁת רְמִיָּה׃ | 57 | but they, too, went astray and acted unfaithfully, like their ancestors. They became like a slack bow, which is good for nothing in battle and cannot be trusted—useless, covenantally dysfunctional in their continual rebellion despite YHWH's continual patience. They had hit rock bottom and there was no coming back from this on the part of Israel's leadership, especially that of the Shiloh temple, which was situated in Ephraim and had been the place chosen for centralized worship since YHWH had given them the land (Josh 18). |
| וַיַּכְעִיסוּהוּ בְּבָמוֹתָם וּבִפְסִילֵיהֶם יַקְנִיאוּהוּ׃ | 58 | They made him angry with their high places of worship of idols all over the hill country, not respecting centralized worship, and with their carved images of false gods they made him jealous. |
| שָׁמַע אֱלֹהִים וַיִּתְעַבָּר וַיִּמְאַס מְאֹד בְּיִשְׂרָאֵל׃ | 59 | God heard their impure and tainted worship, just as he heard their grumbling in the wilderness all those years previously, and he became furious, so that this time he completely rejected Israel's current leadership |
| וַיִּטֹּשׁ מִשְׁכַּן שִׁלוֹ אֹהֶל שִׁכֵּן בָּאָדָם׃ | 60 | and he abandoned the tabernacle at Shiloh, the tent which he had set up especially to dwell among mankind. |
| וַיִּתֵּן לַשְּׁבִי עֻזּוֹ וְתִפְאַרְתּוֹ בְיַד־צָר׃ | 61 | After the battle of Aphek (1 Sam 4) he gave his strength, the Ark of the Covenant, into captivity and [he gave] his glory into the possession of an adversary. Having allowed the Ark to be taken into captivity, he also expressed that his own strength and glory were out of reach for his people, and thus, in their covenant unfaithfulness, they could expect military defeat. |
| וַיַּסְגֵּר לַחֶרֶב עַמּוֹ וּבְנַחֲלָתוֹ הִתְעַבָּר׃ | 62 | So, he gave his people over to the sword and against his inheritance he raged . |
| בַּחוּרָיו אָכְלָה־אֵשׁ וּבְתוּלֹתָיו לֹא הוּלָּלוּ׃ | 63 | Fire consumed his young men and his young women were not sung to, since they had no one to marry and no one with whom they could enjoy wedding songs. |
| כֹּהֲנָיו בַּחֶרֶב נָפָלוּ וְאַלְמְנֹתָיו לֹא תִבְכֶּינָה׃ | 64 | His priests fell by the sword and his widows could not mourn, since their enemies did not give them the opportunity. |
| וַיִּקַץ כְּיָשֵׁן אֲדֹנָי כְּגִבּוֹר מִתְרוֹנֵן מִיָּיִן׃ | 65 | Now, having been inactive throughout the defeat of Shiloh and end of Eli's priestly line, the Lord arose like one who had been asleep to carry out vengeance for his people, like a warrior shouting from [the effects of] wine, |
| וַיַּךְ־צָרָיו אָחוֹר חֶרְפַּת עוֹלָם נָתַן לָמוֹ׃ | 66 | and he struck back his adversaries, all of the Philistines and Canaanites people who would rise up against them between the time of Judges and king David's reign. He gave them eternal shame, such that they would not rise up again. |
| וַיִּמְאַס בְּאֹהֶל יוֹסֵף וּֽבְשֵׁבֶט אֶפְרַיִם לֹא בָחָר׃ | 67 | But, at the same time, he rejected the tent of Joseph and did not choose the clan of Ephraim, who had proven themselves covenantally dysfunctional and unworthy to administer either YHWH's priesthood or monarchy, |
| וַיִּבְחַר אֶת־שֵׁבֶט יְהוּדָה אֶת־הַר צִיּוֹן אֲשֶׁר אָהֵב׃ | 68 | but once and for all he chose the clan of Judah, Mount Zion which he loves"more than all the dwelling places of Jacob" (Ps 87:2), |
| וַיִּבֶן כְּמוֹ־רָמִים מִקְדָּשׁוֹ כְּאֶרֶץ יְסָדָהּ לְעוֹלָם׃ | 69 | and, Zion being where his earthly king would rule, he built his holy place like heaven, like the earth which he has established forever and will not be shaken, such that, unlike abandoned Shiloh, its continued existence is a sign of YHWH's faithful promises that his chosen king's rule will not be shaken either. |
| וַיִּבְחַר בְּדָוִד עַבְדּוֹ וַיִּקָּחֵהוּ מִמִּכְלְאֹת צֹאן׃ | 70 | YHWH passed on the role of shepherding the people to his earthly king. For this role, he chose David, his servant, not an Ephraimite, and took him from working as a shepherd in a sheep pen. |
| מֵאַחַר עָלוֹת הֱבִיאוֹ לִרְעוֹת בְּיַעֲקֹב עַמּוֹ וּבְיִשְׂרָאֵל נַחֲלָתוֹ׃ | 71 | From [looking] after nursing animals he brought him to shepherd none other than Jacob, his people, and [to shepherd] Israel, who were still his inheritance despite the rejection of their previous leadership, but who were just as vulnerable and in need of protection as nursing animals, so that they would continue in covenant faithfulness. |
| וַיִּרְעֵם *בְּ*תֹם לְבָבוֹ וּבִתְבוּנוֹת כַּפָּיו יַנְחֵם׃ | 72 | He shepherded them with the integrity of his heart and with his wise actions he led them, so that they would never again become a covenantally dysfunctional slack bow. |
Story Triangles
(Click diagram to enlarge)
| fire flared up against Jacob and also anger rose against Israel ... the anger of God rose against them (vv. 21, 31) | ||
| heat of fire | anger | |
|---|---|---|
| Effect | burning, death (see, e.g., Num 11:1-3) | increased temperature (Zech 10:3; Ps 18:8); death (v. 31b) |
| Cause | agentless: a spark, lightning (e.g., Ps 78:48); agentive: arson (e.g., Judg 15:4-5) | YHWH's word (Jer 5:14; Ps 19); the day of YHWH (Mal 3:2) |
| Purpose | to burn, destroy (Gen 19:24), purify (Mal 3:2; Zech 13:9); execute (Dan 3) | to burn, destroy, purify (Isa 4:4); execute |
| Blend | YHWH's anger is the heat of fire | |
| Implicatures | YHWH's anger had the same destructive consequences among the camp of the Israelites as a fire would. As fire (and smoke) rises physically, increased anger is comparable to the increased temperature, as physiologically experienced (and expressed in the conceptual metaphor of ANGER IS HEAT present in many languages). | |
| Prominence | LOW
The idiom involving "wrath rising against someone" is unique in the Bible, but used elsewhere with הֶמָה (see 2 Sam 11:20; Ezek 38:18; 2 Chr 36:16). It seems to be derived in a similar sense in both vv. 21 and 31, so as fire/heat rises, so does the anger of YHWH (drawing from the conceptual metaphor ANGER IS HEAT; Kövecses 2010, 81). This is a common image throughout the Bible (see, e.g., the etymology of the idiom חָרָה אַפּוֹ) and its effects seem to be more profiled in the present context than its nature. | |
| He gave his strength into captivity and [he gave] his glory into the possession of an adversary (v. 61) | ||
| YHWH's strength / glory | the Ark of the Covenant | |
|---|---|---|
| Contextual domain | Status (SDBH) | Representation (SDBH) |
| Lexical domain | Strong, great (SDBH) | Containers (SDBH) |
| Function | wins wars | is present to help his people win wars (Josh 6) |
| Purpose | to be sought, as representative of YHWH himself (Ps 105:4) | to be sought (1 Chr 13:3), as representative of YHWH's strength (Ps 132:8) |
| Value | YHWH's people's prized possession | A prized possession of YHWH's people (Exod 25:10-22) |
| Possessor | YHWH (Ps 24:8) | YHWH |
| Blend | The Ark of the Covenant represents YHWH's strength and glory | |
| Implicatures | As YHWH allowed the Ark to be taken into captivity, he also expressed that his own strength and glory was out of reach for his people, and thus, in their covenant unfaithfulness, they could expect military defeat (vv. 62ff) | |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
As a unique metonymical reference to the Ark, where in other places it is spelled out (Ps 132:8), the extra cognitive work to establish its identity enhances the prominence of the image. | |
| So he ordered clouds from above and opened heavenly doors and rained down upon them... (vv. 23-24a) | ||
| clouds | doors | |
|---|---|---|
| Function | to permit/restrict movement in/out | to provide a space for movement in/out
|
| Container | the waters of heaven (Gen 1:6-8) | people, objects
|
| Manipulability | determined by YHWH (see, e.g., 1 Kgs 17:1-7; 18:41-44) | determined by whoever has the key |
| Blend | The clouds are doors in heaven | |
| Implicatures | YHWH can open the clouds to rain down as he pleases, just as someone would easily open doors, so that the contained object can leave the delimited space. | |
| Prominence | LOW
Although there are other instances of openings/containers in the sky as parallels to שְׁחָקִים (see, e.g., נִבְלֵ֥י שָׁ֝מַ֗יִם "jars/bottles of heaven" in Job 38:37, which is also found in parallel with שְׁחָקִים), this is the only instance of the use of דֶּלֶת in this context, which may imply a greater abundance of precipitation than expected (though see the apparently agent-less וַאֲרֻבֹּ֥ת הַשָּׁמַ֖יִם נִפְתָּֽחוּ "the windows of heaven were opened" in Gen 7:11). It does not stand out as unique, belong to a series of "heavenly" descriptions ("clouds ... manna ... grain from heaven ... bread of angels"). | |
| ... who did not keep their heart committed and whose mind was not faithful to God ... Their heart was not committed to him (vv. 8b, 37a) | ||
| heart/spirit | container | |
|---|---|---|
| Contents | vital organs | thoughts and will |
| Nature | (un)healthy, (dis)functional | either good (e.g., 1 Kgs 8:17) or bad (e.g., Deut 15:9) thoughts and intentions |
| Change | receive a new organ (Ezek 11:19; 18:31) | think or desire differently |
| Responsibility | the host organism | the producer of the thoughts and will |
| Blend | The ancestor's heart/spirit is their will and intentions | |
| Implicatures | The ancestor's will and intentions were not aligned to YHWH's will and intentions | |
| Prominence | LOW
HEART AS CONTAINER OF THOUGHTS AND ACTS OF WILL is a common conceptual metaphor in the Hebrew Bible (van der Merwe 2023). In an exhaustive semantic study, TDOT (vol. 13, 377), notes that "Not rarely we also find rûaḥ used in the sense of 'mind,' parallel or synonymous with 'heart,' (see, e.g., Num 14:24; Deut 2:30; Isa 26:9; 29:24; Ezek 13:3; Mal 2:15–16; Ps 32:2; 77:7; 106:33; 142:4; 143:4; Job 21:4; 32:18; Eccl 7:9), such that, rather than serving as metonymy for the entire person, רוּחַ as 'mind' has been judged to carry a similar meaning as לֵב for container of thoughts." It is not a highly prominent image in Ps 78 because it is frequent throughout the Bible and does not contribute anything unique to the characterization of the people in the psalm. | |
| The things which we heard, and we learned them, and our ancestors told us, we will not hide from their children in the latest generation (vv. 3-4) | ||
| hide something | not communicate something | |
|---|---|---|
| Trajector | an object | information |
| Experiencer | does not see the object | does not know the information |
| Social obligation | the recipient has the rights to the revealed object | the recipient has the rights to the revealed information |
| Opposite | reveal | speak |
| Blend | The ancestor's messages are desirable objects | |
| Implicatures | The latest generation had the obligation to communicate the ancestors' message to their children | |
| Prominence | LOW
TEACHING IS A DESIRED OBJECT is a conceptual metaphor that occurs elsewhere in the Psalms (see, e.g., Pss 19:11; 119:72). Furthermore, the verb כחד in the piel stem always occurs in the context of communication, though involves concrete objects in both the niphal and hiphal. It has been deemed low in prominence since the psalm does not return to this image, nor does it significantly contribute to the psalm's message. | |
| They became like a slack bow (v. 57b) | ||
| slack bow | Israel | |
|---|---|---|
| Function | not able to shoot | acting unfaithfully (v. 57a)
|
| Nature | useless and untrustworthy | useless and untrustworthy to carry out covenant faithfulness |
| Blend | Israel is a useless and untrustworthy object | |
| Implicatures | Israel cannot be trusted to carry out its function of covenant faithfulness | |
| Prominence | HIGH
In addition to the simile (and even change-of-state verb, נֶ֝הְפְּכ֗וּ "they became") making the imagery perhaps overly "spelled out," there are important poetic structural implications brought about by the sound play between נֶ֝הְפְּכ֗וּ כְּקֶ֣שֶׁת רְמִיָּֽה here and בְּֽנֵי־אֶפְרַ֗יִם נוֹשְׁקֵ֥י רוֹמֵי־קָ֑שֶׁת הָ֝פְכ֗וּ בְּי֣וֹם קְרָֽב׃ (v. 9), with the reverse order of the verb הפך, the noun קֶשֶׁת and the root √רמה creating an inclusio for the section vv. 9-58 (see the poetic structure). The high prominence of the image is produced by the semantic and phonetic correspondences between vv. 9 and 57, after the syntactic and semantic difficulties with the first of these verses. | |
| but he led out his people like a flock and guided them in the wilderness like a herd ... From [looking] after nursing animals he brought him to shepherd Jacob, his people, and [to shepherd] Israel, his inheritance. He shepherded them with the integrity of his heart and with his wise actions he led them (vv. 52, 71–72) | ||
| a flock / herd | Israel | |
|---|---|---|
| Number | numerous (Ps 107:41) | numerous (six hundred thousand men, besides women and children—Exod 12:37; Num 11:21)
|
| Nature | needy, with a tendency to stray | needy, with a tendency to stray from covenant faithfulness
|
| Relationship (1) | shepherd's possession | YHWH's possession (Exod 19:5)
|
| Relationship (2) | the shepherd gathers the flock, protects it, seeks out the sheep when lost, and provides protection and provision. | God as shepherd gathers his flock together (Is 60:7; Jer 23:3), keeps it as a possession (Jer 31:10), seeks it out (Ezek 34:12), protects it (Ezek 34:22), encloses it in a sheepfold (Mic 2:12) and feeds it (Ps 79:13; Is 40:11; Mic 5:4) (DBI, 293)
|
| Relationship (3) | the sheep listen to the shepherd's voice (John 10:3–4) | Israel should listen to YHWH's voice
|
| Result | the sheep are comforted by the shepherd's presence | they travelled in security and were not afraid (v. 53)
|
| Risk | the sheep risk being attacked and scattered | Israel risked being attacked and scattered |
| Blend | Israel is YHWH's flock | |
| Implicatures | Israel, as YHWH's possession, were very numerous, yet at risk of disobeying their shepherd and being scattered | |
| Prominence | HIGH
The image of YHWH's people as a flock/herd needing to be shepherded appears at both the close of the Exodus events and in the didactic climax of the psalm—in the solution to the puzzling problems (v. 2) revealed in vv. 67–72—whereby the Davidic king is given the authority to serve as under-shepherd of the people (see, especially, vv. 70–72). Furthermore, note the word play between צֹֽאן (vv. 52, 70), צִיּוֹן (v. 68) and צֹעַן (vv. 12, 43), as discussed in the lexical notes and poetic feature, "Sheep, Shepherd and Shevet." | |
| So he made meat rain upon them like dust and [he made] winged birds [rain upon them] like the sand on the seashore (v. 27) | ||
| dust and sand | meat | |
|---|---|---|
| Quantity | innumerable (Gen 13:16; 28:14; Num 23:10; Ps 139:18) | innumerable (Num 11:31) |
| Value | common | worthless (cf. 1 Kgs 10:21, 27), with diminishing returns, until it comes out at your nostrils and becomes loathsome to you (Num 11:20, ESV) |
| Blend | YHWH provided meat in quantities as large as the sand of the sea | |
| Implicatures | YHWH provided so much meat that it was impossible to count (or gather it all; Num 11) and ultimately worthless and "loathsome." | |
| Prominence | LOW
The similes of "as dust" and "as the sand on the seashore" simply communicate the quantity of meat/quail provided in terms more terse than those employed in Exodus 16:18 ("Each of them gathered as much as he could eat," ESV) and Numbers 11: "about a day’s journey on this side and a day’s journey on the other side, around the camp, and about two cubits above the ground," such that "Those who gathered least gathered ten homers" (Num 11:31-32). | |
| He drove out nations from their presence and and allotted them as an inheritance by measurement (v. 55) | ||
| nations | territory | |
|---|---|---|
| Contextual domain | group (SDBH) | land (SDBH; cf. Ps 105:11) |
| Lexical domain | group (SDBH) | land (SDBH; cf. Ps 105:11) |
| Delimitation | specific, delimited people group | a certain allotment |
| Blend | The nations stand for the nations' territory | |
| Implicatures | By inheriting nations, YHWH's people inherit their territory | |
| Prominence | LOW
This interpretation of the syntax is not universally recognized (see the notes at phrase-level and participant analysis) and involves the only mention of גּוֹיִם in the psalm. Although Psalm 105:11 makes explicit that the land of Canaan (אֶת־אֶֽרֶץ־כְּנָ֑עַן) is in view, Joshua 13:4 employs the same metonymy as that found here (רְאוּ֩ הִפַּ֨לְתִּי לָכֶ֜ם אֶֽת־הַ֠גּוֹיִם הַנִּשְׁאָרִ֥ים הָאֵ֛לֶּה בְּנַחֲלָ֖ה לְשִׁבְטֵיכֶ֑ם "See, I have allotted for you these remaining nations as an inheritance for your clans"). Although the same discourse referent as the גּוֹיִם is probably to be found also in "his adversaries" (צָרָיו) in v. 66, this, too, is not totally uncontroversial (see the exegetical issue: "The Identity of the 'Adversaries' in Ps 78:66"). | |
| He remembered that they were flesh, a breeze that goes by and will not return (v. 39) | ||
| breeze | people | |
|---|---|---|
| Movement | unknown; around and around and never the same (Eccl 1:6), but ultimately to God (Eccl 12:7) | after a brief existence, people return to the dust (Ps 90:3; 146:4) and commit their spirit to God (Ps 31:6), who even cuts off the spirits of princes (Ps 76:13) |
| Stability | unattainable, though you chase it (Eccl 1:14, etc.) | ephemeral (Gen 6:3) |
| Benefit | toiling after (Eccl 5:15) and gaining nothing (Prov 11:29) | After a brief existence, people's legacy is of no benefit and comparable to nothing |
| Blend | The generation of the Israelites are a breeze | |
| Implicatures | Just as a breeze that comes and goes, the generation of the Israelites was ephemeral and going to pass away soon. | |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
In comparison to the numerous similes in the psalm (see vv. 13, 27, 52, 65, 69), the identification of the Israelites as a breeze is a direct metaphor and thus more prominent. It is also placed in the verse containing the second of three instances of זכר and the final verse of the poetic section, vv. 9-39 (see poetic structure). Alongside the declarations of God's mercy in the previous verse, it sets the scene for the final solution to the psalm's puzzling problems of vv. 67-72: the people may be a breeze, but the longevity of David's reign will not be. | |
| He gave his people over to the sword (v. 62) | ||
| sword | war | |
|---|---|---|
| Contextual domain | Aggression (SDBH) | Warfare (SDBH)
|
| Lexical domain | Weapons > conflict (SDBH) | Move > Conflict (SDBH; קְרָב in v. 9); conflict (SDBH; מִלְחָמָה)
|
| Result | Death | Death |
| Blend | The sword, a weapon of war, stands for war | |
| Implicatures | YHWH permitted his people to be killed in war, of which the sword is a common weapon. | |
| Prominence | LOW
The metonymy of SWORD IS WAR is easy to process, and could easily be mistaken for the literal interpretation of the user of the weapon, though we have preferred the metonymic understanding of war in general. | |
| Is God not able to prepare a table in the wilderness? (v. 19) | ||
| food | table | |
|---|---|---|
| Contextual domain | food | food (SDBH) |
| Lexical domain | food | furnishings (SDBH) |
| Size of meal | nondescript | a substantial meal |
| Intentionality | can be stolen (Gen 14:11) or sold (Lev 25:37) | includes a welcome and invite |
| Beneficiary | anyone, including thieves (Gen 14:11) | guest |
| Blend | The table containing the food stands for the food | |
| Implicatures | A table, rather than a more specific meal, may imply lots of different types of food (see, e.g., לֶחֶם and שְׂאֵר in v. 20). Rather than the generic "food," which may be stolen, sold or bought, "preparing a table" implies a welcome guest and a substantial meal, since "a substantial table spread with plenty of food shows God’s blessing and provision" (DBI, 840). | |
| Prominence | HIGH
The metonymy the table is food (cf. Ps 23:5) provides the ironic image of a table in the wilderness, which may "have been in the style of an animal skin or a mat" (HALOT, 1520), though it was more commonly used in the tabernacle (see, e.g., Exod 25:7, among others), implying a meeting with YHWH. While the point seems to be the nondescript nature of nourishment in general, in similar manner to the modern use of dish for a variety of menu items, it belongs to the only direct discourse in the psalm, a tense moment in which the Israelites complain against God. | |
| Now the Lord arose like one who had been asleep (v. 65a) | ||
| sleeping person | YHWH | |
|---|---|---|
| State | inactive | passive observer of his people's suffering
|
| Consciousness | unaware of surroundings | apparently unconcerned with surrounding events, until he remembered (see זכר in v. 39; cf. Exod 2:24)
|
| Later state | awake to begin the day | awake to bring about deliverance (Isa 51:9–11; Zech 2:16–17; Pss 7:7; 44:23–24) |
| Blend | YHWH, the God who awakens into action | |
| Implicatures | YHWH was inactive throughout the defeat of Shiloh and end of Eli's priestly line, whereas he would soon wake up and spring into saving action. | |
| Prominence | HIGH
The simile of a sleeping person is expected of YHWH as he begins his redeeming activity (Isa 51:9–11; Zech 2:16–17; Pss 7:7; 44:23–24), yet, combined with the warrior image in the following clause, this pair of similes gains prominence by its function of opening the final section of the psalm (see poetic structure). | |
| [Now the Lord arose] like a warrior shouting from [the effects of] wine (v. 65b) | ||
| warrior | YHWH | |
|---|---|---|
| Emotions | enraged (2 Sam 17:8) | enraged |
| Skill | superior fighting skills (2 Sam 17:8) | superior fighting skills (Exod 15:3–4) |
| Purpose | gives his people victory | gives his people victory (Josh 6:2) |
| Result | strikes fear into his enemies | strikes fear into his enemies |
| Blend | YHWH is a warrior (Exod 15:3) | |
| Implicatures | YHWH protects and avenges his people with enraged passion. | |
| Prominence | HIGH
The simile of warrior is found paired with that of a sleeping person, gaining prominence by its function of opening the final section of the psalm (see poetic structure) and the defamiliarization of the difficult lexeme מִתְרוֹנֵ֥ן (see the lexical notes). | |
| he made the waters stand like a heap (v. 13) | ||
| waters | heap | |
|---|---|---|
| State | liquid | solid |
| Risk | unpredictable | stable |
| Manipulability | moulds to shape of container | can be built up (e.g., נֵ֥ד קָצִ֛יר in [MT] Isa 17:11) |
| Blend | The water of the Reed sea is a heap of material | |
| Implicatures | The chaotic and dangerous waters stood as firmly as two heaps of solid material, making the Israelites' crossing secure and without risk (cf. וְלֹ֣א פָחָ֑דוּ in v. 53). | |
| Prominence | MEDIUM
The simile waters as a heap is used to describe the crossing of the Reed Sea (Exod 15:8), as here, but also the Jordan river (Josh 3:13, 16), and the separation of the waters at creation (Ps 33:7). The significance of the stability caused by the solid state surrounding the Israelites in place of the chaotic liquid harkens back to creation and then enthronement of YHWH as king of the cosmos, as equally regally superior over Pharaoh. This tension is drawn out through the description of the Egyptian plagues in vv. 42-51. | |
| He sent among them the wrath of his anger ... He cleared a path for his anger (vv. 49-50) | ||
| wrath | agent of wrath | |
|---|---|---|
| Contextual domain | Temper; divine (SDBH) | Errand (SDBH) |
| Lexical domain | People > angry (SDBH) | Messengers, groups (SDBH) |
| Initial causer | YHWH | YHWH |
| Function | destroys YHWH's enemies | destroys YHWH's enemies |
| Blend | The agents of YHWH's wrath stand for YHWH's wrath itself | |
| Implicatures | YHWH sending his instruments of wrath is as effective as sending his wrath itself | |
| Prominence | LOW
The means by which the מַלְאֲכֵ֥י רָעִֽים "angels bringing disaster" carry out YHWH's wrath is clear from the asyndesis and patterns of waw throughout v. 49 (see phrase-level notes), while the metonymy accommodates both the wrath being sent (v. 49) and having a path prepared for it (v. 50). Other places in the psalm provide an agentive force for YHWH's anger (see, e.g., vv. 21, 31), so it is not unexpected here. | |
| They would remember that YHWH was their rock (v. 35) | ||
| rock | YHWH | |
|---|---|---|
| Nature | Associated with hardness, permanence, security (SDBH) and shade (DBI) | God who provides protection for his people (SDBH)
|
| Location | Often high up | God is the Most High (see the following line; cf. vv. 17, 56)
|
| Surroundings | Chaotic waters, weather, or landscape | Uncertainty of provision and safety (vv. 20, 53)
|
| Function | Provides refuge | Provides relief from difficult circumstances |
| Blend | YHWH, the God who protects and provides | |
| Implicatures | YHWH, the God who protects and provides
YHWH provides the needs of his people, no matter their circumstances | |
| Prominence | LOW
There are a number of poetic reasons for high prominence of this image: it is found in the central line of the psalm (with 81 lines both preceding and following) and only one verse before the middle verse of the book of Psalms, 78:36 (see the margin of Codex Leningradensis). Furthermore, it is paired with "redeemer" and "Most High" in this verse (the central instance of seven uses of "Most High" in the Psalms of Asaph, in the central psalm of the collection of Asaphite Psalms—Pss 73-83). Nevertheless, "rock" is a common image for YHWH both in the Psalms and throughout the Bible, while here it is only cited as the Israelites false pretenses under which they would flatter him with their verbal repentance (see v. 36ff.). | |
| and he built his holy place like heaven, like the earth which he has established forever. (v. 69) | ||
| heaven and earth | Zion | |
|---|---|---|
| Permanence | established forever (Jer 33:20–21) | established (Ps 87:5) forever (Ps 125:1)
|
| Quality | good (Gen 1); high (heaven) and stable (earth; cf. Ps 93:1) (Hossfeld 2005, 299–300); unique | good; sublime (≈ heaven) and constant (≈ earth) (Hossfeld 2005, 299-300); unique
|
| Location | high, exalted | high, exalted
|
| Function (1) | YHWH's dwelling place (Ps 2:4; 115:3) | YHWH's dwelling place (Ps 135:21)
|
| Function (2) | sign of YHWH's continued faithfulness (Ps 89:37–38) | sign of YHWH's continued faithfulness (Ps 89:37–38) |
| Blend | Zion, the eternal and exalted dwelling place of YHWH | |
| Implicatures | YHWH has chosen Zion permanently as his exalted dwelling place, from which his earthly king rules (Ps 110:2). Its continued existence is a sign of YHWH's faithful promises. | |
| Prominence | LOW
The similes "like heaven" and "like the earth" to which YHWH's holy place is compared is found in between the declaration of YHWH's love for Zion (v. 68b) and election of David (v. 70a), so is not particularly salient in this thematic development, but contributes to the larger picture being developed. | |
Bibliography
Footnotes
- ↑ Common-ground assumptions include information shared by the speaker and hearers. In our analysis, we mainly use this category for Biblical/ANE background - beliefs and practices that were widespread at this time and place. This is the background information necessary for understanding propositions that do not readily make sense to those who are so far removed from the culture in which the proposition was originally expressed.
- ↑ Local-ground assumptions are those propositions which are necessarily true if the text is true. They include both presuppositions and entailments. Presuppositions are those implicit propositions which are assumed to be true by an explicit proposition. Entailments are those propositions which are necessarily true if a proposition is true.
- ↑ Whereas local-ground assumptions are inferences which are necessarily true if the text is true, play-ground assumptions are those inferences which might be true if the text is true.